Type Physical characteristics “Bynames discursively formed to reveal strong and overt sexual and bodily connotations, although never prolific, declined in use. The really expressive ones are encountered at an earlier time and had diminished in production by the middle of the thirteenth century; by the early and mid fourteenth century, sexually explicit or implicit by-names survived in the ‘North’, but had all but disappeared in the ‘South’. What seems to have happened was a change in language use, probably from unmarked to marked language. An earlier emphatic preoccupation with the lower part of the body was gradually renounced.” (Postles, 2006, Naming the People of England p115-116) The reasons were: The move to hereditary surnames obviated the use of expressions pertaining to a single individual. The growth of civility in the urban context (perhaps from the assimilation of French culture of self-restraint). The reform of language (pro-homiletic) propagated by the Church. (Postles, 2003, Talking Ballocs pp14-15) Body nicknames In the 11th and 12th centuries, it was not unknown for lesser nobility to receive bodily nicknames, e.g. Basset, meaning low of stature. However there was a change in culture of what language was acceptable, and so by the 13th century, any explicit new nicknames derived from the body, became associated with the marginal reaches of society. (Postles, 2006, Naming the People of England p120) This move from coarse to a socially-acceptable language may have been facilitated by pressure from priests (after 1215) for restraint and prudence in speech, and more unlikely, the threat of slander, or by the influence of those in France, where sexual imputations were seemingly absent from their nickname bynames. By the early 14th century, about a third of all taxpayers with nickname bynames had (i.e. unexplicit) bynames associated with the body (in the context of a drift to identity by an overall body description or through complexion, rather than by a single feature). 20% of body nicknames had Anglo-Norman or French derivation. And of these, about half were compounds, and were borne by and large by the lesser nobility, the middling sort, e.g Foljambe, Visdelu. (Postles, 2003, Talking Ballocs pp29) Height/build Posture: Posture nicknames existed only at the lowest levels, esp. in the North Tall: Long, Mych, Grand , Storr [OS] Short: Little, Low, Small, Court Obese: Thick Thin: Gaunt, Lean, Meager Neck and head Fairhead {Grosseteste} Hair (long): Lock, Hurren Hair (short): Coppell Hairy: Ruffhead, Hurrin Bearded: Facial hair was the most commonly cited facial feature – Barbe, Chinn, Whitbread {Gernon} = moustache ME vernacular = {Folbarbe, Rodbarb, Bedeles} Bald: Ball, Ballard Face: Facial nicknames usually assigned to higher than marginal statuses e.g.Vidler Teeth: Durden {Duredent}, {Dendylion} Ears: Arliss, Penderell Eyes: – Nose: Usually pejoratively assigned- Cameron, Wroot {Hoknose} Mouth, lips: – Neck: Swannick, {Wythals} = ‘white neck’ Complexion The distribution of the surname Black suggests a Scottish origin. [Class here colour names] Below the neck Limbs: Suffixes= -bon, -bayn e.g. {Longbayn}, {Smalbayne} Arms: The least named of the limbs : Armstrong (Northern and ME): Beaubraz (Southern and Anglo-Norman) Shoulders: – Hands: {Whithond}, {Swethand}, {Maynstromg}, {Brennehand} Legs: Legs were more honorific than feet; leg nicknames are more dignified Feet: The majority of ‘limb’ nicknames involve the feet, and usually in a compounded form – Pettifer, Beljambe. In the ‘North’ the vernacular term ‘shanks’ is more common (and more pejorative?) – Sheepshanks. Gait {Smalhopp}, {Lightfoot} , {Golightly} Physical defects Crump, Crook, Bossy (hunchback), Deaves (deaf) Complimentary – Garments/Clothing Nicknames from clothes are relatively rare, and invariably involve peasant status. Almost half (poll-tax survey) involve the hood. Costume: Hood, Mantell. But could denote a maker of these items (though compound forms are less likely to be metonymic). Armour: Hospitality and Charity Money: Moneypenny, {Costnought}, {Pennyfarthing}. Money nicknames “probably reflect transgressions against the norms of charity and hospitality.” The monetary value of individual nicknames does not equate to status. Religion and Devotion “Nicknames and by-names associated with devotion exhibit the same ambiguity as other nickname bynames, for they might not only import devoutness but ironically (suppression of) excessive devoutness. Exceeding the bounds of conventional devotion might have incurred derision or at best criticism. Moreover, scepticism existed in the late middle ages and thus those revealing any degree of circumspection might have been placed at the social margins by the attribution of nicknames.” (Postles, 2003, Talking Ballocs p42) Examples: Paternoster, {Barefot} Opposites: {Blaksoule}, {Hogprest}, {Le Hethene} Greetings/Oaths Greetings: Bonjour, Bonger(s); Goodenday, Godsmark, Godsalve, Godspede Oaths: Pardew, Pardy, Pardoe (< Per Dieu); Purdy (< Pour Dieu) Friendship Often suffixed with –wine, a Middle English term for friend, which by the 13th Century merely meant man French derivations: {Copyner, Belamy, Bonamy} {Veysin} = Neighbour {Consel} =Advice ME derivations: {Frende, Neighbur} Age and authority I have preferred to locate these under ‘Surnames of relationship.’ Note: Older age appears less frequently in these forms than comparative lesser age. Crime and inhospitality Felonies: {Utlagh, Renaway} Misdemeanours: {Brisewood, Pickepese, Percehay, Pikehakes} Social transgressions: {Dolittell, Careles} Violence and anger Note: many can be seen as insinuating sexual misdemeanours. Moral characteristics – Sex, love, courtliness The male member was metaphorically a spear, lance, sword or staff, e.g. Shakespeare, Wagstaffe. In the NW of England, these euphemistically phrasal formations persisted into the late 14th Century. The lexis of sexual predatoriness was usually expressed in ME vernacular; courtly love in French. “Some of the regulation of local sexual morality was achieved through the attribution of descriptive bynames into the middle of the fourteenth century. The ascription of these cognomina was intended to humiliate and shame those to whom they were directed, for transgressing or being suspected of transgressing local social norms.” (Postles, 2003, Talking Ballocs p55.) Sexual Male organs: Pyntel, Balloc Female pudenda: -tail Female exploitation -rose {Pluckrose}, -lady {Lovelady} Love Drury Speech and language Baret, {Parlebien}, Buttermouth, {Singsmal} Animal names The majority of animal names were uncompounded, e.g. Fox, Lamb, etc. The compounded forms seem to associated with the more marginal members of society examples Wildgoose, {Wetherhogge}. “Some species were associated with particular qualities – foxes were noted for cunning, peacocks for pride, lambs for meekness, kites with rapacity, sparrows with lasciviousness, doves with gentleness etc.” (McKinley HBS p160) Many of these, e.g. Herring may be occupational nicknames. Mammals: Batt, Beevor, Bull, Catt, Cony, Doe, Hart, Hogg, Lamb, Otter, Palfrey, Roebuck, Stagg, Whale, Wolf, etc. Birds: Bullfinch, Chaffinch, Crane, Dove, Dunnock, Finch, Fowl, Ganger, Goose, Hawke, Jay, Kite, Nightingale, Lark, Partridge, Pawe, Pigeon, Quayle, Raven, Swallow, Swan, Thrush, Woodcock Fish: Herring, Puffer, Gurnard, Lamprey, Lax, Pilchard, Shad, Spratt, Tench, Trout. But Salmon is from the personal name Salomon Time Seasonal: Winter. But Spring is topographical and Summers, Somers probably derive from the occupational Sumptner or Sumner. Day: Monday (sometimes from OS personal name); Friday is a day of fasting (and also regarded as unlucky (Good Friday). Saints’ Days: Month: May. Festivals: Christmas: Christmas, Noel, Nowell, Newell, Midwinter Easter: Pack, Pakes, Paish, Paske. Pentecost: Pentecost, Pencost.